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c:T706b,<p>&nbsp;</p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">1Q) What is .NET Framework?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="color: #e03e2d;"><strong>Ans:</strong></span>.NET Framework is a complete environment that allows developers to develop, run, and deploy the following applications:</span></p>
<ul style="text-align: justify;">
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Console applications</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Windows Forms applications</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) applications</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Web applications (ASP.NET applications)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Web services</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Windows services</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Service-oriented applications using Windows Communication Foundation (WCF)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Workflow-enabled applications using Windows Workflow Foundation (WF)</span></li>
</ul>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">.NET Framework also enables a developer to create sharable components to be used in distributed computing architecture. NET Framework supports the object-oriented programming model for multiple languages, such as Visual Basic, Visual C#, and Visual C++. .NET Framework supports multiple programming languages in a manner that allows language interoperability. This implies that each language can use the code written in some other language.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">2Q) What are the main components of .NET Framework?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>.NET Framework provides enormous advantages to software developers in comparison to the advantages provided by other platforms. Microsoft has united various modern as well as existing technologies of software development in .NET Framework. These technologies are used by developers to develop highly efficient applications for modern as well as future business needs. The following are the key components of .NET Framework:</span></p>
<ul style="text-align: justify;">
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">.NET Framework Class Library</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Common Language Runtime</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Dynamic Language Runtimes (DLR)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Application Domains</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Runtime Host</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Common Type System</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Metadata and Self-Describing Components</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Cross-Language Interoperability</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">.NET Framework Security</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Profiling</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Side-by-Side Execution</span></li>
</ul>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">3Q) List the new features added in .NET Framework 4.0.</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>The following are the new features of .NET Framework 4.0:</span></p>
<ul style="text-align: justify;">
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Improved Application Compatibility and Deployment Support</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Dynamic Language Runtime</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Managed Extensibility Framework</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Parallel Programming framework</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Improved Security Model</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Networking Improvements</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Improved Core ASP.NET Services</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Improvements in WPF 4</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Improved Entity Framework (EF)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Integration between WCF and WF</span></li>
</ul>
<blockquote>
<p><em><strong><span style="font-size: 16px;">Interested in mastering .NET? Learn more about "<span style="color: #e03e2d;"><a style="color: #e03e2d;" href="net-training" target="_blank" rel="noopener">.NET Training</a></span>" in this blog post.</span></strong></em></p>
</blockquote>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">4Q) What is IL?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Intermediate Language is also known as MSIL (Microsoft Intermediate Language) or CIL (Common Intermediate Language). All .NET source code is compiled to IL. IL is then converted to machine code at the point where the software is installed, or at run-time by a Just-In-Time (JIT) compiler.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">5Q) What is Manifest?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Assembly metadata is stored in Manifest. Manifest contains all the metadata needed to do the following things</span></p>
<ul style="text-align: justify;">
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">A version of the assembly.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Security identity.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Scope of the assembly.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Resolve references to resources and classes.</span></li>
</ul>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The assembly manifest can be stored in a PE file either (an .exe or) .dll with Microsoft intermediate language (MSIL code with Microsoft intermediate language (MSIL) code or in a stand-alone PE file, that contains only assembly manifest information.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">6Q) What are the code contracts?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Code contracts help you to express the code assumptions and statements stating the behavior of your code in a language-neutral way. The contracts are included in the form of pre-conditions, post-conditions, and object-invariants. The contracts help you to improve-testing by enabling run-time checking, static contract verification, and documentation generation.</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The&nbsp;System.Diagnostics.Contracts&nbsp;namespace contains static classes that are used to express contracts in your code.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">7Q) Name the classes that are introduced in the system. Numerics namespace?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>The following two new classes are introduced in the System. Numerics namespace:</span></p>
<ul style="text-align: justify;">
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">BigInteger&nbsp;- Refers to a non-primitive integral type, which is used to hold a value of any size. It has no lower and upper limit, making it possible for you to perform arithmetic calculations with very large numbers, even with the numbers which cannot hold by double or long.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Complex&nbsp;- Represents complex numbers and enables different arithmetic operations with complex numbers. A number represented in the form&nbsp;a + bi, where&nbsp;a&nbsp;is the real part, and&nbsp;b&nbsp;is the imaginary part, is a complex number.</span></li>
</ul>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">8Q) What is a managed extensibility framework?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Managed extensibility framework (MEF) is a new library that is introduced as a part of .NET 4.0 and Silverlight 4. It helps in extending your application by providing greater reuse of applications and components. MEF provides a way for the host applications to consume external extensions without any configuration requirement.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">9Q) Explain memory-mapped files?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Memory-mapped files (MMFs) allow you to map the content of a file to the logical address of an application. These files enable the multiple processes running on the same machine to share data with each Other. TheMemoryMappedFile.CreateFromFile() method is used to obtain a MemoryMappedFile object that represents a persisted memory-mapped file from a file on disk.</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">These files are included in the&nbsp;System.IO.MemoryMappedFiles&nbsp;namespace. This namespace contains four classes and three enumerations to help you access and secure your file mappings.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">10Q) What is the Common Type System (CTS)?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>CTS is the component of CLR through which .NET Framework provides support for multiple languages because it contains a type system that is common across all the languages. Two CTS-compliant languages do not require type conversion when calling the code written in one language from within the code written in another language. CTS provides a base set of data types for all the languages supported by.NET Framework. This means that the size of integer and long variables is the same across all .NET-compliant programming languages. However, each language uses aliases for the base data types provided by CTS. For example, CTS uses the data type system. int32 to represent a 4-byte integer value; however, Visual Basic uses the alias integer for the same; whereas, C# uses the alias int. This is done for the sake of clarity and simplicity.</span></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><a style="background-color: #e94350; color: #ffffff; padding: 10px 20px;" href="net-tutorials" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Check Out .Net Tutorial</a></span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">11Q)Give a brief introduction on side-by-side execution. Can two applications, one using private assembly and the other using the shared assembly be stated as side-by-side executables?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Side-by-side execution enables you to run multiple versions of an application or component and CLR on the same computer at the same time. As versioning is applicable only to shared assemblies and not to private assemblies, two applications, one using a private assembly and the other using a shared assembly, cannot be stated as side-by-side executables.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">12Q) Which method do you use to enforce garbage collection in .NET?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>The&nbsp;System.GC.Collect()&nbsp;method.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">13Q) State the differences between theDispose()and&nbsp;Finalize().</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>CLR uses the Dispose and Finalize methods to perform garbage collection of run-time objects of .NET applications.</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The&nbsp;Finalize&nbsp;method is called automatically by the runtime. CLR has a garbage collector (GC), which periodically checks for objects in heap that are no longer referenced by any object or program. It calls the Finalize method to free the memory used by such objects. The&nbsp;Dispose&nbsp;method is called by the programmer.&nbsp;Dispose&nbsp;is another method to release the memory used by an object. The Dispose method needs to be explicitly called in code to dereference an object from the heap. The&nbsp;Dispose&nbsp;method can be invoked only by the classes that implement the&nbsp;IDisposableinterface.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">14Q) What is code access security (CAS)?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Code access security (CAS) is part of the .NET security model that prevents unauthorized access of resources and operations, and restricts the code to perform particular tasks.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">15Q) Differentiate between managed and unmanaged code?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Managed code is the code that is executed directly by the CLR instead of the operating system. The code compiler first compiles the managed code to intermediate language (IL) code, also called as MSIL code. This code doesn't depend on machine configurations and can be executed on different machines.</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Unmanaged code is the code that is executed directly by the operating system outside the CLR environment. It is directly compiled to native machine code which depends on the machine configuration. In the managed code, since the execution of the code is governed by CLR, the runtime provides different services, such as garbage collection, type checking, exception handling, and security support. These services help provide uniformity in platform and language-independent behavior of managed code applications. In the unmanaged code, the allocation of memory, type safety, and security is required to be taken care of by the developer. If the unmanaged code is not properly handled, it may result in a memory leak. Examples of unmanaged code are ActiveX components and Win32 APIs that execute beyond the scope of native CLR.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">16Q) What are tuples?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Tuple is a fixed-size collection that can have elements of either the same or different data types. Similar to arrays, a user must have to specify the size of a tuple at the time of declaration. Tuples are allowed to hold up from 1 to 8 elements and if there are more than 8 elements, then the 8th element can be defined as another tuple. Tuples can be specified as a parameter or return type of a method.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">17Q) How can you turn-on and turn-off CAS?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>YOU can use the Code Access Security Tool (Caspol.exe) to turn security on and off.</span></p>
<ul>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">To turn off security, type the following command at the command prompt: caspol -security off</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">To turn on security, type the following command at the command prompt: caspol -security on</span></li>
</ul>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">In the .NET Framework 4.0, for using Caspol.exe, you first need to set the&nbsp;&lt;LegacyCasPolicy&gt;&nbsp;element to&nbsp;true.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">18Q)Define garbage collection? Explain the difference between garbage collections in .NET 4.0 and earlier versions?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Garbage collection prevents memory leaks during the execution of programs. A garbage collector is a low-priority process that manages the allocation and deallocation of memory for your application. It checks for the unreferenced variables and objects. If GC finds any object that is no longer used by the application, it frees up the memory from that object.</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">GC has changed a bit with the introduction of .NET 4.0. In .NET 4.0, the&nbsp;GC.Collect()&nbsp;method contains the following overloaded methods:</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">GC.Collect(int)</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">GC.Collect(int, GCCollectionMode) Another new feature introduced in .NET is to notify you when the GC.Collect() method is invoked and completed successfully by using different methods. The .NET 4.0 supports a new background garbage collection that replaces the concurrent garbage collection used in earlier versions. This concurrent GC allocates memory while running and uses current segment (which is 16 MB on a workstation) for that. After that, all threads are suspended. In the case of background GC, a separate ephemeral GC - gen0 and gen1 can be started, while the full GC - gen0, 1, and 2 - is already running.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">19Q) How do CAS works?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>There are two key concepts of CAS security policy- code groups and permissions. A code group contains assemblies in it in a manner that each .NET assembly is related to a particular code group and some permissions are granted to each code group. For example, using the default security policy, a control downloaded from a Web site belongs to the Zone, Internet code group, which adheres to the permissions defined by the named permission set. (Normally, the named permission set represents a very restrictive range of permissions.)</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Assembly execution involves the following steps:</span></p>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Evidence is gathered about assembly.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Depending on the gathered evidence, the assembly is assigned to a code group.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Security rights are allocated to the assembly, depending on the code group.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Assembly runs as per the rights assigned to it.</span></li>
</ul>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">20Q) What is the Difference between NameSpace and Assembly?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Following are the differences between namespace and assembly:</span></p>
<ul style="text-align: justify;">
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Assembly is a physical grouping of logical units, Namespace, logically group classes.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">A namespace can span multiple assemblies.</span></li>
</ul>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">21Q) Mention the execution process for managed code?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>A piece of managed code is executed as follows:</span></p>
<ul style="text-align: justify;">
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Choosing a language compiler</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Compiling the code to MSIL</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Compiling MSIL to native code</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Executing the code.</span></li>
</ul>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">22Q) Is there a way to suppress the finalize process inside the garbage collector forcibly in .NET?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Use the&nbsp;GC.SuppressFinalize()&nbsp;method to suppress the finalize process inside the garbage collector forcibly in .NET.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">23Q) How can you instantiate a tuple?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>The following are two ways to instantiate a tuple:</span></p>
<ul style="text-align: justify;">
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Using the&nbsp;new&nbsp;operator. For example,</span></li>
</ul>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Tuple&lt;String, int&gt; t = new Tuple&lt;String, int&gt; ("Hellow", 2);</span></p>
<ul style="text-align: justify;">
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Using the&nbsp;Create&nbsp;factory method available in the Tuple class. For example,</span></li>
</ul>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Tuple&lt;int, int, int&gt; t = Tuple.Create&lt;int, int, int&gt; (2, 4, 5);</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">24Q) Which is the root namespace for fundamental types in .NET Framework?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>System.Object&nbsp;is the root namespace for fundamental types in .NET Framework.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">25Q) What are the improvements made in CAS in .NET 4.0?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>The CAS mechanism in .NET is used to control and configure the ability of managed code. Earlier, as this policy was applicable for only native applications, the security guarantee was limited. Therefore, developers used to look for alternative solutions, such as operating system-level solutions. This problem was solved in .NET Framework 4 by turning off the machine-wide security. The shared and hosted Web applications can now run more securely. The security policy in .NET Framework 4 has been simplified using the transparency model. This model allows you to run the Web applications without concern about the CAS policies.</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">As a result of security policy changes in .NET Framework 4.0, you may encounter compilation warnings and runtime exceptions, if your try to use the obsolete CAS policy types and members either implicitly or explicitly. However, you can avoid the warnings and errors by using the&nbsp;&lt;NetFx40_LegacySecurityPolicy&gt;&nbsp;configuration element in the runtime settings schema to opt into the obsolete CAS policy behavior.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">26Q) What is Microsoft Intermediate Language (MSIL)?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>The .NET Framework is shipped with compilers of all .NET programming languages to develop programs. There are separate compilers for the Visual Basic, C#, and Visual C++ programming languages in .NET Framework. Each .NET compiler produces an intermediate code after compiling the source code. The intermediate code is common for all languages and is understandable only to .NET environment. This intermediate code is known as MSIL.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">27Q) What is lazy initialization?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Lazy initialization is a process by which an object is not initialized until it is first called in your code. The .NET 4.0 introduces a new wrapper class,&nbsp;System.Lazy&lt;T&gt;, for executing the lazy initialization in your application. Lazy initialization helps you to reduce the wastage of resources and memory requirements to improve performance. It also supports thread-safety.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">28Q) How many types of generations are there in a garbage collector?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Memory management in the CLR is divided into three generations that are build up by grouping memory segments. Generations enhance garbage collection performance. The following are the three types of generations found in a garbage collector:</span></p>
<ul style="text-align: justify;">
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Generation 0 - When an object is initialized, it is said to be in generation 0.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Generation 1 - The objects that are under the garbage collection process are considered to be in generation 1.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Generation 2 - Whenever new objects are created and added to the memory, they are added to generation 0 and the old objects in generation 1 are considered to be in generation 2.</span></li>
</ul>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">29Q) Explain covariance and contra-variance in .NET Framework 4.0. Give an example for each?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>In .NET 4.0, the CLR supports covariance and contravariance of types in generic interfaces and delegates. Covariance enables you to cast a generic type to its base types, that is, you can assign an instance of type IEnumerable&lt;Tl&gt; to a variable of type IEnumerable&lt;T2&gt; where T1 derives from T2. For example,</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">IEnumerable&lt;string&gt; str1= new List&lt;string&gt; ();</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">IEnumerable&lt;object&gt; str2= str1; Contravariance allows you to assign a variable of&nbsp;Action&lt;base&gt;&nbsp;to a variable of type&nbsp;Action&lt;derived&gt;. For example,</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">IComparer&lt;object&gt; obj1 = GetComparer()</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">IComparer&lt;string&gt; obj2 = obj1; .NET framework 4.0 uses some language keywords (out and in) to annotate covariance and contra-variance. Out is used for covariance, while in is used for contra-variance.</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Variance can be applied only to reference types, generic interfaces, and generic delegates. These cannot be applied to value types and generic types.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">30Q) How do you instantiate a complex number?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>The following are the different ways to assign a value to a complex number:</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Bypassing two Double values to its constructor. The first value represents the real, and the second value represents the imaginary part of a complex number. For example,</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Complex c1 = new Complex(5, 8); /* It represents (5, 8) */ By assigning a Byte, SByte, Intl6, UIntl6, Int32, UInt32, Int64, UInt64, Single, or Double value to a complex object. The assigned value represents the real part of the complex number, and its imaginary part becomes0. For example,</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Complex c2 = 15.3; /* It represents (15.3, 0) */ By casting a&nbsp;Decimal&nbsp;or&nbsp;BigInteger&nbsp;value to a&nbsp;Complex&nbsp;object. For example,</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Complex c3 = (Complex) 14.7; /* It represents (14.7, 0) */ Assigning the value returned by an operator to a&nbsp;Complex&nbsp;variable. For example,</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Complex c4 = c1 + c2; /* It represents (20.3, 8) */</span></p>
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<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">1Q) What is .NET Framework?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><span style="color: #e03e2d;"><strong>Ans:</strong></span>.NET Framework is a complete environment that allows developers to develop, run, and deploy the following applications:</span></p>
<ul style="text-align: justify;">
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Console applications</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Windows Forms applications</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) applications</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Web applications (ASP.NET applications)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Web services</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Windows services</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Service-oriented applications using Windows Communication Foundation (WCF)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Workflow-enabled applications using Windows Workflow Foundation (WF)</span></li>
</ul>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">.NET Framework also enables a developer to create sharable components to be used in distributed computing architecture. NET Framework supports the object-oriented programming model for multiple languages, such as Visual Basic, Visual C#, and Visual C++. .NET Framework supports multiple programming languages in a manner that allows language interoperability. This implies that each language can use the code written in some other language.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">2Q) What are the main components of .NET Framework?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>.NET Framework provides enormous advantages to software developers in comparison to the advantages provided by other platforms. Microsoft has united various modern as well as existing technologies of software development in .NET Framework. These technologies are used by developers to develop highly efficient applications for modern as well as future business needs. The following are the key components of .NET Framework:</span></p>
<ul style="text-align: justify;">
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">.NET Framework Class Library</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Common Language Runtime</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Dynamic Language Runtimes (DLR)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Application Domains</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Runtime Host</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Common Type System</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Metadata and Self-Describing Components</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Cross-Language Interoperability</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">.NET Framework Security</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Profiling</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Side-by-Side Execution</span></li>
</ul>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">3Q) List the new features added in .NET Framework 4.0.</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>The following are the new features of .NET Framework 4.0:</span></p>
<ul style="text-align: justify;">
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Improved Application Compatibility and Deployment Support</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Dynamic Language Runtime</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Managed Extensibility Framework</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Parallel Programming framework</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Improved Security Model</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Networking Improvements</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Improved Core ASP.NET Services</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Improvements in WPF 4</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Improved Entity Framework (EF)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Integration between WCF and WF</span></li>
</ul>
<blockquote>
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<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">4Q) What is IL?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Intermediate Language is also known as MSIL (Microsoft Intermediate Language) or CIL (Common Intermediate Language). All .NET source code is compiled to IL. IL is then converted to machine code at the point where the software is installed, or at run-time by a Just-In-Time (JIT) compiler.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">5Q) What is Manifest?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Assembly metadata is stored in Manifest. Manifest contains all the metadata needed to do the following things</span></p>
<ul style="text-align: justify;">
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">A version of the assembly.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Security identity.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Scope of the assembly.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Resolve references to resources and classes.</span></li>
</ul>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The assembly manifest can be stored in a PE file either (an .exe or) .dll with Microsoft intermediate language (MSIL code with Microsoft intermediate language (MSIL) code or in a stand-alone PE file, that contains only assembly manifest information.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">6Q) What are the code contracts?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Code contracts help you to express the code assumptions and statements stating the behavior of your code in a language-neutral way. The contracts are included in the form of pre-conditions, post-conditions, and object-invariants. The contracts help you to improve-testing by enabling run-time checking, static contract verification, and documentation generation.</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The&nbsp;System.Diagnostics.Contracts&nbsp;namespace contains static classes that are used to express contracts in your code.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">7Q) Name the classes that are introduced in the system. Numerics namespace?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>The following two new classes are introduced in the System. Numerics namespace:</span></p>
<ul style="text-align: justify;">
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">BigInteger&nbsp;- Refers to a non-primitive integral type, which is used to hold a value of any size. It has no lower and upper limit, making it possible for you to perform arithmetic calculations with very large numbers, even with the numbers which cannot hold by double or long.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Complex&nbsp;- Represents complex numbers and enables different arithmetic operations with complex numbers. A number represented in the form&nbsp;a + bi, where&nbsp;a&nbsp;is the real part, and&nbsp;b&nbsp;is the imaginary part, is a complex number.</span></li>
</ul>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">8Q) What is a managed extensibility framework?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Managed extensibility framework (MEF) is a new library that is introduced as a part of .NET 4.0 and Silverlight 4. It helps in extending your application by providing greater reuse of applications and components. MEF provides a way for the host applications to consume external extensions without any configuration requirement.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">9Q) Explain memory-mapped files?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Memory-mapped files (MMFs) allow you to map the content of a file to the logical address of an application. These files enable the multiple processes running on the same machine to share data with each Other. TheMemoryMappedFile.CreateFromFile() method is used to obtain a MemoryMappedFile object that represents a persisted memory-mapped file from a file on disk.</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">These files are included in the&nbsp;System.IO.MemoryMappedFiles&nbsp;namespace. This namespace contains four classes and three enumerations to help you access and secure your file mappings.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">10Q) What is the Common Type System (CTS)?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>CTS is the component of CLR through which .NET Framework provides support for multiple languages because it contains a type system that is common across all the languages. Two CTS-compliant languages do not require type conversion when calling the code written in one language from within the code written in another language. CTS provides a base set of data types for all the languages supported by.NET Framework. This means that the size of integer and long variables is the same across all .NET-compliant programming languages. However, each language uses aliases for the base data types provided by CTS. For example, CTS uses the data type system. int32 to represent a 4-byte integer value; however, Visual Basic uses the alias integer for the same; whereas, C# uses the alias int. This is done for the sake of clarity and simplicity.</span></p>
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<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">11Q)Give a brief introduction on side-by-side execution. Can two applications, one using private assembly and the other using the shared assembly be stated as side-by-side executables?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Side-by-side execution enables you to run multiple versions of an application or component and CLR on the same computer at the same time. As versioning is applicable only to shared assemblies and not to private assemblies, two applications, one using a private assembly and the other using a shared assembly, cannot be stated as side-by-side executables.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">12Q) Which method do you use to enforce garbage collection in .NET?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>The&nbsp;System.GC.Collect()&nbsp;method.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">13Q) State the differences between theDispose()and&nbsp;Finalize().</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>CLR uses the Dispose and Finalize methods to perform garbage collection of run-time objects of .NET applications.</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">The&nbsp;Finalize&nbsp;method is called automatically by the runtime. CLR has a garbage collector (GC), which periodically checks for objects in heap that are no longer referenced by any object or program. It calls the Finalize method to free the memory used by such objects. The&nbsp;Dispose&nbsp;method is called by the programmer.&nbsp;Dispose&nbsp;is another method to release the memory used by an object. The Dispose method needs to be explicitly called in code to dereference an object from the heap. The&nbsp;Dispose&nbsp;method can be invoked only by the classes that implement the&nbsp;IDisposableinterface.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">14Q) What is code access security (CAS)?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Code access security (CAS) is part of the .NET security model that prevents unauthorized access of resources and operations, and restricts the code to perform particular tasks.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">15Q) Differentiate between managed and unmanaged code?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Managed code is the code that is executed directly by the CLR instead of the operating system. The code compiler first compiles the managed code to intermediate language (IL) code, also called as MSIL code. This code doesn't depend on machine configurations and can be executed on different machines.</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Unmanaged code is the code that is executed directly by the operating system outside the CLR environment. It is directly compiled to native machine code which depends on the machine configuration. In the managed code, since the execution of the code is governed by CLR, the runtime provides different services, such as garbage collection, type checking, exception handling, and security support. These services help provide uniformity in platform and language-independent behavior of managed code applications. In the unmanaged code, the allocation of memory, type safety, and security is required to be taken care of by the developer. If the unmanaged code is not properly handled, it may result in a memory leak. Examples of unmanaged code are ActiveX components and Win32 APIs that execute beyond the scope of native CLR.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">16Q) What are tuples?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Tuple is a fixed-size collection that can have elements of either the same or different data types. Similar to arrays, a user must have to specify the size of a tuple at the time of declaration. Tuples are allowed to hold up from 1 to 8 elements and if there are more than 8 elements, then the 8th element can be defined as another tuple. Tuples can be specified as a parameter or return type of a method.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">17Q) How can you turn-on and turn-off CAS?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>YOU can use the Code Access Security Tool (Caspol.exe) to turn security on and off.</span></p>
<ul>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">To turn off security, type the following command at the command prompt: caspol -security off</span></li>
<li style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">To turn on security, type the following command at the command prompt: caspol -security on</span></li>
</ul>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">In the .NET Framework 4.0, for using Caspol.exe, you first need to set the&nbsp;&lt;LegacyCasPolicy&gt;&nbsp;element to&nbsp;true.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">18Q)Define garbage collection? Explain the difference between garbage collections in .NET 4.0 and earlier versions?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Garbage collection prevents memory leaks during the execution of programs. A garbage collector is a low-priority process that manages the allocation and deallocation of memory for your application. It checks for the unreferenced variables and objects. If GC finds any object that is no longer used by the application, it frees up the memory from that object.</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">GC has changed a bit with the introduction of .NET 4.0. In .NET 4.0, the&nbsp;GC.Collect()&nbsp;method contains the following overloaded methods:</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">GC.Collect(int)</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">GC.Collect(int, GCCollectionMode) Another new feature introduced in .NET is to notify you when the GC.Collect() method is invoked and completed successfully by using different methods. The .NET 4.0 supports a new background garbage collection that replaces the concurrent garbage collection used in earlier versions. This concurrent GC allocates memory while running and uses current segment (which is 16 MB on a workstation) for that. After that, all threads are suspended. In the case of background GC, a separate ephemeral GC - gen0 and gen1 can be started, while the full GC - gen0, 1, and 2 - is already running.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">19Q) How do CAS works?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>There are two key concepts of CAS security policy- code groups and permissions. A code group contains assemblies in it in a manner that each .NET assembly is related to a particular code group and some permissions are granted to each code group. For example, using the default security policy, a control downloaded from a Web site belongs to the Zone, Internet code group, which adheres to the permissions defined by the named permission set. (Normally, the named permission set represents a very restrictive range of permissions.)</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Assembly execution involves the following steps:</span></p>
<ul>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Evidence is gathered about assembly.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Depending on the gathered evidence, the assembly is assigned to a code group.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Security rights are allocated to the assembly, depending on the code group.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Assembly runs as per the rights assigned to it.</span></li>
</ul>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">20Q) What is the Difference between NameSpace and Assembly?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Following are the differences between namespace and assembly:</span></p>
<ul style="text-align: justify;">
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Assembly is a physical grouping of logical units, Namespace, logically group classes.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">A namespace can span multiple assemblies.</span></li>
</ul>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">21Q) Mention the execution process for managed code?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>A piece of managed code is executed as follows:</span></p>
<ul style="text-align: justify;">
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Choosing a language compiler</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Compiling the code to MSIL</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Compiling MSIL to native code</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Executing the code.</span></li>
</ul>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">22Q) Is there a way to suppress the finalize process inside the garbage collector forcibly in .NET?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Use the&nbsp;GC.SuppressFinalize()&nbsp;method to suppress the finalize process inside the garbage collector forcibly in .NET.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">23Q) How can you instantiate a tuple?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>The following are two ways to instantiate a tuple:</span></p>
<ul style="text-align: justify;">
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Using the&nbsp;new&nbsp;operator. For example,</span></li>
</ul>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Tuple&lt;String, int&gt; t = new Tuple&lt;String, int&gt; ("Hellow", 2);</span></p>
<ul style="text-align: justify;">
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Using the&nbsp;Create&nbsp;factory method available in the Tuple class. For example,</span></li>
</ul>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Tuple&lt;int, int, int&gt; t = Tuple.Create&lt;int, int, int&gt; (2, 4, 5);</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">24Q) Which is the root namespace for fundamental types in .NET Framework?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>System.Object&nbsp;is the root namespace for fundamental types in .NET Framework.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">25Q) What are the improvements made in CAS in .NET 4.0?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>The CAS mechanism in .NET is used to control and configure the ability of managed code. Earlier, as this policy was applicable for only native applications, the security guarantee was limited. Therefore, developers used to look for alternative solutions, such as operating system-level solutions. This problem was solved in .NET Framework 4 by turning off the machine-wide security. The shared and hosted Web applications can now run more securely. The security policy in .NET Framework 4 has been simplified using the transparency model. This model allows you to run the Web applications without concern about the CAS policies.</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">As a result of security policy changes in .NET Framework 4.0, you may encounter compilation warnings and runtime exceptions, if your try to use the obsolete CAS policy types and members either implicitly or explicitly. However, you can avoid the warnings and errors by using the&nbsp;&lt;NetFx40_LegacySecurityPolicy&gt;&nbsp;configuration element in the runtime settings schema to opt into the obsolete CAS policy behavior.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">26Q) What is Microsoft Intermediate Language (MSIL)?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>The .NET Framework is shipped with compilers of all .NET programming languages to develop programs. There are separate compilers for the Visual Basic, C#, and Visual C++ programming languages in .NET Framework. Each .NET compiler produces an intermediate code after compiling the source code. The intermediate code is common for all languages and is understandable only to .NET environment. This intermediate code is known as MSIL.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">27Q) What is lazy initialization?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Lazy initialization is a process by which an object is not initialized until it is first called in your code. The .NET 4.0 introduces a new wrapper class,&nbsp;System.Lazy&lt;T&gt;, for executing the lazy initialization in your application. Lazy initialization helps you to reduce the wastage of resources and memory requirements to improve performance. It also supports thread-safety.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">28Q) How many types of generations are there in a garbage collector?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>Memory management in the CLR is divided into three generations that are build up by grouping memory segments. Generations enhance garbage collection performance. The following are the three types of generations found in a garbage collector:</span></p>
<ul style="text-align: justify;">
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Generation 0 - When an object is initialized, it is said to be in generation 0.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Generation 1 - The objects that are under the garbage collection process are considered to be in generation 1.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Generation 2 - Whenever new objects are created and added to the memory, they are added to generation 0 and the old objects in generation 1 are considered to be in generation 2.</span></li>
</ul>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">29Q) Explain covariance and contra-variance in .NET Framework 4.0. Give an example for each?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>In .NET 4.0, the CLR supports covariance and contravariance of types in generic interfaces and delegates. Covariance enables you to cast a generic type to its base types, that is, you can assign an instance of type IEnumerable&lt;Tl&gt; to a variable of type IEnumerable&lt;T2&gt; where T1 derives from T2. For example,</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">IEnumerable&lt;string&gt; str1= new List&lt;string&gt; ();</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">IEnumerable&lt;object&gt; str2= str1; Contravariance allows you to assign a variable of&nbsp;Action&lt;base&gt;&nbsp;to a variable of type&nbsp;Action&lt;derived&gt;. For example,</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">IComparer&lt;object&gt; obj1 = GetComparer()</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">IComparer&lt;string&gt; obj2 = obj1; .NET framework 4.0 uses some language keywords (out and in) to annotate covariance and contra-variance. Out is used for covariance, while in is used for contra-variance.</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Variance can be applied only to reference types, generic interfaces, and generic delegates. These cannot be applied to value types and generic types.</span></p>
<h3><span style="font-size: 12pt;">30Q) How do you instantiate a complex number?</span></h3>
<p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><strong style="color: #e03e2d;">Ans: </strong>The following are the different ways to assign a value to a complex number:</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Bypassing two Double values to its constructor. The first value represents the real, and the second value represents the imaginary part of a complex number. For example,</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Complex c1 = new Complex(5, 8); /* It represents (5, 8) */ By assigning a Byte, SByte, Intl6, UIntl6, Int32, UInt32, Int64, UInt64, Single, or Double value to a complex object. The assigned value represents the real part of the complex number, and its imaginary part becomes0. For example,</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Complex c2 = 15.3; /* It represents (15.3, 0) */ By casting a&nbsp;Decimal&nbsp;or&nbsp;BigInteger&nbsp;value to a&nbsp;Complex&nbsp;object. For example,</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Complex c3 = (Complex) 14.7; /* It represents (14.7, 0) */ Assigning the value returned by an operator to a&nbsp;Complex&nbsp;variable. For example,</span></p>
<p style="text-align: justify; padding-left: 30px;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Complex c4 = c1 + c2; /* It represents (20.3, 8) */</span></p>
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